As with any field, there are theories and frameworks that shape academic advising. Understanding student development and advising theory can serve as a solid foundation to stand upon when working with students in the advising setting. This edition of the Advising Essentials will review commonly drawn-upon student development and advising theories and discuss the ways in which you could apply them to your work with students.
Why Student Development Theory?
Rodgers (1990) defines student development as "the ways that a student grows, progresses, or increases his or her developmental capabilities as a result of enrollment in an institution of higher education" and concerns "the development of the whole person" (Evans et al., 2009, p. 27).
Student development theories are a starting point for understanding why student affairs professionals do what they do; they are used as a framework for designing initiatives and programs for students. Think about the first-year students you've interacted with versus the fourth-year students--there is usually a noticeable difference in maturity, personality, and academic performance. Student development theories describe the processes/stages students go through as they grow and change throughout their time in college.
According to Knefelkamp, Widick, & Parker (1978) as cited in Evans et al. (2009), student development theory should respond to four questions:
- What interpersonal and intrapersonal changes occur while the student is in college?
- What factors lead to this development?
- What aspects of the college environment encourage or slow growth?
- What developmental outcomes should we strive to achieve in college?
While there are dozens of theories, frameworks, and paradigms that answer these four questions, this edition of the Advising Essentials will focus on Chickering's Theory of Identity Development, Perry's Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development, and Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship.
Chickering's Theory of Identity Development
Overview
First outlined in 1969, Chickering's theory is one of many theories that seek to explain the identity development process that college students go through during their time in college. This theory rests upon seven vectors of development, all of which students move through at varying speeds and are not necessarily linear. Though students can move through the vectors in a variety of ways, they do build upon each other, "leading to greater complexity, stability, and integration" (Evans et al., 2009, p. 66-67). It is important to note that not all students will be at vector 7 when they graduate; some students may not progress through all vectors during their time at college. Interactions with holistic and developmental professionals, such as academic advisers, can help students move from vector to vector.
Vector 1: Developing Competence
Three areas of competence: intellectual, physical/manual, and interpersonal. Includes subject matter knowledge, critical thinking, wellness, communication, and leadership.
Vector 2: Managing Emotions
The ability to recognize, accept, and appropriately express all emotions. Includes feelings of a positive and negative nature. Students develop coping skills.
Vector 3: Moving through Autonomy Toward Interdependence
A time of increased emotional independence that shifts to the realization of the importance of connection with others.
Vector 4: Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal and intercultural tolerance while appreciating differences and similarities. Create healthy relationships.
Vector 5: Establishing Identity
Clear self-concept and the ability to accept and integrate feedback. Includes identities based on gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, culture, etc.
Vector 6: Developing Purpose
Career goals and making meaningful commitments to interests. Lifestyle and family affect decision-making and establishing a direction for one's life.
Vector 7: Developing Integrity
Balance the interests of others with their own interests and establish value systems. Authenticity and congruence between values and actions.
Application to Advising
Chickering's theory can be applied to academic advising situations. Consider the students you have on your advising roster--your first- and second-year students are probably still in vectors 1-4. More senior students are likely in vectors 5-7. Understanding this allows you, as an adviser, to tailor the conversation to where the student is at developmentally and help move the student along the continuum. Sometimes, students may need coaching in one (or more) of the vectors.
For example, a first-semester student who says, "Why do I even need to take General Education courses? I just want to take classes for my major" may need coaching on understanding the importance of Gen Eds and how they build skills employers are seeking. In this instance, the student has not developed the intellectual competence to make connections across disciplines and think critically about University requirements. As an adviser, you can provide the necessary information and challenge the student to consider how Gen Eds can benefit them now and in the future.
Perry's Theory of Intellectual and Moral Development
Overview
Perry's theory focuses on the way students develop intellectual and moral structures that help them make sense of the world around them. The foundational premise of his theory is that "by having their truths and beliefs challenged, advisees grow and adapt" (Folsom et al., 2015, p. 69-70). His theory posits nine positions along a continuum that students move between, and development takes place in the space between the positions, not in the positions themselves. The theory is often simplified, and multiple positions are combined so there are three primary modes of meaning-making: duality, multiplicity, and relativism.
Duality
- The world is viewed dichotomously
- Thinking is very black and white, right, or wrong, good, or bad
- Students view instructors, advisers, and other "authority figures" as holding the information
- Learning is viewed as an exchange of information between someone who knows and someone who doesn't know
- Belief in only one right answer
Multiplicity
- All opinions are equally valid from this perspective
- Perspective of the student role shifts from rote memorization to independent learning
- Peers become viewed as a legitimate source of knowledge
- The ability to think analytically is improved
Relativism
- All opinions are no longer viewed as equally valid because there is are cognition that opinions need to be supported
- Understanding that, while some opinions are not as valid as others, people can legitimately disagree on some matters
- Knowledge is viewed with in context, and evidence and support are needed for arguments
Application to Advising
Consider this example scenario from Folsom et al. (2015):
Leslie was facilitating a group advising session for new transfer students and referenced the spectrum of attendance policies put forth by faculty members, departments, and collegiate units. One advisee in attendance took a dualistic position and asked, "Well, do I have to attend every day or don't I?" Another advisee, who saw the multiplicity in the statement, thought "I suppose I'll need to check with each syllabus." A third advisee, who had reached a position of relativism, showed no surprise that absenteeism was not regarded with absolutes and appreciated faculty members' exercise of academic freedom in determining attendance policies. A fourth attendee recognized that an absence could be excused under certain circumstances, and in other instances, the cost of missing a class unexcused might be worth the opportunity gained, for example, to attend an interview for a prestigious
internship. (p. 70)
In this scenario, the four advisees are at various positions of intellectual development. Identifying these positions and the ways they manifest in an advising situation allows the adviser to understand the student's level of intellectual development and shift the way in which the adviser works with the student. For example, Leslie in the scenario above would take a different approach when working with the first student versus the last student. Fora student in the dualistic position, asking thought-provoking questions such as "How could missing class positively or negatively affect you?" could assist the student in developing their thinking beyond that position.
Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship
Overview
Baxter Magolda identified four phases leading to self-authorship during the early adult years. During this period of an individual's life, three major questions are asked, "How do I know? Who am I? How do I want to construct relationships with others?" (Evans et al., 2009, p. 184). The journey to uncover the answers to these questions is designated as the journey toward self-authorship, wherein one develops an understanding of the self. This journey is comprised of four phases: following formulas, crossroads, becoming the author of one's own life, and internal foundation.
Following Formulas
In this phase, students follow the plans that are dictated by external forces, such as parents, societal expectations, and peer groups. Students look to authority figures to help them determine their path. Students in this phase also place a significant amount of value in the opinions of others.
Crossroads
When students discover that the plans laid out for them by others are not going to work or are no longer desirable, they experience tension between what they thought they wanted and what they actually want. Students begin to establish their own beliefs.
Becoming the Author of One's Own Life
Students are able to articulate their own beliefs and desires and stand up for them, even if external forces disagree. This phase is characterized by continual reflection and assessment to develop a strong self-concept.
Internal Foundation
Here, students are solidly grounded in their self-determined beliefs and desires. They have a strong sense of who they are as an individual and within various relationships with others. They are able to make life decisions based on their internal foundation.
Application to Advising
Many college students, especially those that are traditional-aged, utilize college as a time to explore themselves, understand their values and identity, and work toward integrating that with their life's path. Advisers play acritical role in helping students achieve self-authorship. Think about your own advising experience. How many times have you helped a student identify their interests or values in connection to a major? How many times have you assisted a student in developing a path toward their desired career path? These actions help move students toward self-authorship.
Sometimes, a parent's expectation may not align with the student's expectation, especially in regard to choosing a major. It may be easy to encourage the student to simply do what they want, but to help guide the student toward self-authorship, advisers can provide suggestions for tasks to build confidence in independent decision-making. For example, an adviser could suggest that the student complete informational interviews with faculty members in the major they are considering. An adviser could provide the student with access to an assessment like the MyPlan that allows the student to understand their interests, values, skills, and personality, and how that can be connected to potential majors/careers. Role playing how the student will discuss their academic/career plans with their parents can help the student build confidence in their decision.
References
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (2009).
Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. Jossey-Bass.
Folsom, P., Yoder, F., & Joslin, J. E. (2015). The new advisor guidebook: Mastering the art of academic advising. John Wiley & Sons.
Thank you for reading this edition of the Advising Essentials.
